Category: Myths

For most people, being described as a “flat Earther” is an insult. The idea of the Earth being flat is considered not only wrong, but a  model of wrongness, the gold standard of being incorrect about something. This being so, oddly enough, most people described pejoratively as “flat Earthers” do not actually  believe that the Earth is flat(Flat Earth). “Flat Earther” is simply a scientifically seasoned variation of “idiot”.

For a recent example, US President Barack Obama recently  expressed impatience  with the persistent objections put forward by climate change deniers by saying: “We don’t have time for a meeting of the Flat Earth Society.”

In a subsequent move that one can read as either very fortunate or very unfortunate, the  real Flat Earth Society issued a  statement in support of the hypothesis of anthropogenic climate change.

What do we do, then, when someone actually  does believe that the Earth is flat, as the American rapper  B.o.B expressed recently ? The usual path seems to be blocked; it is difficult to insult someone with a term that they themselves happily adopt.

Edge of the World

But what exactly is a “flat Earth theory”? In fact, there never has been anything called “the flat Earth theory”. Different cultures at different times have posited a staggeringly diverse array of worldviews which cannot easily be summed up with the phrase “flat Earth.” Nor is the idea of a flat Earth something that is exclusive to the Western world.

Even the most cursory historical survey shows that the idea that the Earth is flat has been a notion shared by an extraordinarily wide range of cultures and tied to vastly different metaphysical systems and cosmologies.

Ancient Flat Earth Beliefs

It was a common belief in ancient Greece, as well as in India, China, and in a wide range of indigenous or “pre-state” cultures. Both the poets Homer and Hesiod described a flat Earth. This was maintained by Thales, considered by many one of the first philosophers, Lucretius an avowed materialist, as well as Democritus the founder of atomic theory.

The ancient Greek conception, in turn, has some parallels with that of early Egyptian and Mesopotamian thought, with both thinking that the Earth was a large disc surrounded by a gigantic body of water. The ancient Chinese were also virtually unanimous in their view of the Earth’s flatness, although – in this system – the heavens were spherical, and the Earth was square.

Illustration of an “oriental” cosmographer of the 12th century. (Welten / Public Domain )

A number of ancient Indian conceptions common – with some degree of variation – to ancient Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism tie their cosmography to botanical images with the Earth being comprised of four continents surrounding a mountain, akin to the way petals encircle the bud of a flower. Ancient Norse thought postulated a circular flat Earth surrounded by a sea inhabited by a giant serpent.

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Others, like the Mountain Arapesh people of Papua New Guinea, envisage a world which ends at the horizon, the place where giant clouds gather. But even where commonalities exist across these traditions vastly different metaphysical and cosmological narratives are at stake.

And to complicate these matters, we must add cultures and intellectual traditions for whom the shape of Earth is of no interest whatsoever. Many tribal or pre-state societies, for instance, have little concern for what might be considered cosmography.

Belief Turns to a Spherical Earth for Some…

However, from at least the 6th century BC the theory of the flat Earth began to fall out of favor. By the time we get to Aristotle in the 4th century BC the idea of a spherical Earth is commonplace, at least among the educated classes. And by the 1st Century BC it is considered an uncontroversial truth. Having said that, the theory of a flat Earth has continued as a minor tradition in thought, like a handful of theories in science such as Lamarckianism and vitalism.

12th-century depiction of a spherical Earth with the four seasons. ( Hildegard von Bingen / Public Domain )

Despite the historical tide having long turned, the mid 20th century saw the establishment of the  Flat Earth Society , started in 1956 by  Samuel Shenton , whose work was continued by the retired aircraft mechanic Charles K. Johnson in 1972.

From California, Johnson functioned as president for The International Flat Earth Society. As its spokesman, he made a series of claims that have now become widespread outside the flat Earth community: the Apollo moon landings were faked and that the correct view of the world is the traditional Christian one of the Earth being flat.

Johnson, interestingly enough, did not get only his cosmology wrong he got his history and theology wrong as well. Orthodox Christian thinkers, at least since 5th century on, have supported the idea of a spherical Earth from Bede through to Thomas Aquinas.

Indeed, as the University of California historian  Jeffrey Burton Russell has argued, very few educated people in the West after the 3rd century BC thought that the world was flat. This goes directly against the common belief that most people in medieval times believed the Earth was flat.

How Unenlightened Were They?

But if the flat Earth serves as a kind of myth or fantasy for those who believe in it, there are also myths  about the flat Earth that are just as widespread.

One of the most widely propagated myths in the contemporary world is the belief that Columbus was advised by the Catholic Church to abandon his journey on the basis that he risked falling off the edge of the world.

Its source is the 19th century writer,  Washington Irving , author of other rigorous historical accounts such as The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle.
What this suggests is that we are sometimes overly keen to enlist the past – or our version of the past – in our attempts to feel better about how enlightened we are and how benighted were our predecessors.

The famous “Flat Earth”  Flammarion engraving. The image depicts a man crawling under the edge of the sky as if it were a solid hemisphere, to look at the mysterious Empyrean beyond. (Camille Flammarion / Public Domain )

That, of course, does not mean that no one believed the Earth was flat in the middle ages; nor does it entail that nobody believes it today. Mohammed Yusuf, the founder of Boko Haram, famously claimed to not believe in a whole series of modern ideas which he though were contrary to Islam – including the  spherical shape of the Earth .

If there is anything truly astounding about BoB’s improbable cosmographical musings it is that the battle between him and Neil deGrasse Tyson is at this stage at least, being carried out only through the medium of rap. That could be a historical first for cosmography.

Ananse is the name given to an Akan character who has become famous throughout Africa because of his insight, intelligence, and wisdom. One finds the names Ananse, Aunt Nancy, Anancy, Hapanzi, and Nanzi used for Ananse as well.

He is one of the most important figures in the pantheon of cultural icons among West Africans. In actuality, Ananse is the functional aspect of the almighty creator Nyame and there- fore may be seen to carry out the will of Nyame on Earth. He is able to perform many duties that are often attributed to Nyame. Thus, Ananse can cause rain to come, flowers to blossom, and maize to grow; he can prevent disasters from occurring to the villagers.

Along with his wife, Aso, Ananse can change form and may be depicted as a human, although his normal form is a spider. According to the Asante people, who are part of the larger Akan culture, Ananse can be a trickster, that is, a per- sonality who teaches moral, ethical, political, or social values based on his ability to lead a person to the truth through example, puzzles, and the least expected turns and twists of fate.

Often associated in the Americas, especially in Suriname and the southern United States, with the spider or rabbit, the folklore surrounding Ananse appears to be quite extensive in the African com- munities throughout the Americas.

For example, the Anansesem or Ananse-Tori, stories about Ananse’s exploits, are at the core of many of the moral tales told to children in Suriname, much like the old Brer Rabbit tales were in the African American community up until the 20th century. Many of these stories have disappeared and are no longer remembered in the black communities of the Americas, but their relevance and value are undiminished in the Ghanaian context.

There are many narratives of power in the life of Ananse. He is credited in some stories with cre- ating the sun, moon, stars, and planets. In others, it is said that Ananse is the one who brought writ- ing, agriculture, and hunting to the Earth, teach- ing humans in the process how to take care of themselves in a world surrounded by bountiful fields and forests.

So smart was Him, according to one narrative, that he collected all of the wis- dom of the world in a calabash to hold for himself because he did not trust humans with such potent knowledge and information. However, wisdom kept spilling out of the calabash, and he soon saw how futile it was for one person to try to know everything and to hold it for himself.

In fact, it is far better, as He understood, for knowledge and wisdom to be distributed among all people, and so that is exactly what he did. Consequently, now no people are any smarter than any other people because Ananse distributed wisdom from his calabash bowl.

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Of course, He’s really the King of All Wisdom Narratives. Nothing escapes Ananse; he knows everything, and the Asante people tell the story of how Nyame made Ananse the King of All Wisdom Narratives. One day, Ananse, in his form as a spider, approached Nyame, the Sky God, and asked him to appoint him as the King of All Wisdom Narratives.

Nyame was amazed at the audacity of the spider Kwaku and thought that if he had the courage to approach the Sky God in such a direct fashion, then he must be given a chance to prove himself. Nyame said to Ananse, “If you can catch and capture the Jaguar Who has Dagger-like Teeth, the Hornets Who Sting Like Wild Fire, the Invisible Fairy of the Forest, you will be King of the Wisdom Narratives.”

Nyame thought he had given Kwaku a chal- lenge that he would refuse because the likelihood of anyone achieving success with such challenges was slight. However, Ananse agreed to the chal- lenge. Ananse went to the jaguar and asked him to play a game that would allow Ananse to tie him up with a rope. So the jaguar agreed, and Ananse got the rope and tied him up.

He tricked the hor- nets by telling them that it was raining; indeed, Ananse could make it rain, and he told the hornets that they could hide themselves in a calabash that he had prepared for them. Once they went into the calabash, he put the lid on it. He told the invis- ible fairy to fight a tar baby and, when he did, he was stuck to the tar and could not escape.

Confidently, Ananse took all of his prey to Nyame and showed him that he had succeeded in doing everything that was asked of him, whereupon Nyame named Ananse the King of All Wisdom Narratives. No one has ever been able to exceed the achievements of this wise personality since the time he was made the King of All Wisdom Narratives.

There are versions of the stories that show him being defeated or almost defeated. For exam- ple, once when he was tricked into fighting a tar baby after trying to take some food from the tar baby, he got stuck.
The lessons of Ananse are social, ethical, and moral and are at the core of most Akan cultural responses to society.